Did History Actually Teach Us Anything? - Episode 15 The Radium Girls

Laura: Welcome to "Did History Actually Teach Us Anything?" 
The podcast where we unravel the most well-known tales of calamity, mishap, and unforeseen consequences that have shaped the course of history, and consider whether we've actually learned anything from them all these years later.. 
In this podcast, we examine the historical events that you may think you know about already and the causes that led to them, be they icebergs or bakers ovens. 
We will consider whether these tragedies could have been avoided, and some of the surprising things we do differently now as a result. 
But this podcast, isn't just about dates and events. It's about learning from the past, drawing insights from hindsight, and gaining a deeper appreciation for the complexities of what really happened in these events we think we know so well. 
So get ready to encounter remarkable individuals, pivotal moments, and fascinating insights that will make you appreciate health and safety and environmental management as far more than just red tape.
The Radium Girls were a group of female factory workers in the United States who, thinking they were making a patriotic contribution to the war effort, were actually poisoned by radium exposure while painting watch dials with self-luminous radium paint.
The incident began around 1917, and led to one of the most significant workplace safety reforms in history.
Joining us to explore how the Radium Girls' fight changed workplace safety laws forever, is one of our health and safety experts Aimee, who will begin by giving us a brief explanation of who the Radium Girls actually were.

Aimee: During World War I, factories hired young women, mainly teenagers, to paint glow-in-the -dark numbers on watch and clock dials using radium-based paint. One of the major companies involved was the United States Radium Corporation (USRC) in Orange, New Jersey. Workers were encouraged to lip-point their paintbrushes - shaping the bristles with their lips to get a fine tip - resulting in them ingesting tiny amounts of radium daily.
At the time, radium was believed to be safe - even marketed as a health supplement. The young women unaware of the danger were exposed to the radioactive substance over months and years. Many of the workers developed severe radiation poisoning, leading to: 
- anemia and severe fatigue; 
- tooth loss, and extremely painful jaw disintegration, now known as radium jaw;
- bone fractures; 
- necrosis;
- deadly cancers, particularly sarcomas; and, 
- death from hemorrhages. 
It is estimated that 112 of the dial painters lost their lives through radiation poisoning, some dying in their 20s and 30s,a nd some of the women's bones even became so radioactive that their remains still emit radiation to this day.
The affected workers eventually sued the United States Radium Corporation when their symptoms became unmanageable, but the company denied responsibility, even trying to discredit medical findings. The case gained national attention, and in 1928, five women (known as the "Radium Girls") won a landmark legal battle, bringing awareness of the health risks associated with exposure to radium.

Laura: So what were the health and safety causes of the poisoning?

Aimee: The Radium Girls incident was a result of severe health and safety failures.
Firstly, there was a lack of scientific knowledge and misinformation.
At the time, radium was believed to be harmless, or even beneficial to health. It was marketed in medicines, cosmetics, and tonics, so the general public were unaware of the true dangers. Scientists already knew that large doses of radiation were harmful. Marie Curie and other researchers had already experienced health effects, but low dose exposure risks were ignored or underestimated.
Next, there was pre-industrial hygiene practices and direct exposure.
Workers were trained to shape their pain brushes with their lips, unknowingly ingesting radium with each stroke. There were no gloves, masks, or ventilation systems provided to limit radiation exposure. The radium dust coated the women's clothes, skin, and food - and some of the workers would even glow in the dark when they went home.
Then there was employer negligence and coverups. The United States Radium Corporation knew the risks. Company scientists and male workers handling raw radium wore protective gear and worked behind lead shields, while female dial painters were not given the any precautions. When workers felt ill, United States Radium Corporation denied any responsibility and, to add insult to injury, publicly claimed the girls had contracted syphilis, which was highly stigmatized. They also hired so-called " experts" to discredit medical findings and even falsified research to claim radium was safe. Doctors and dentists who discovered the radium poisoning were pressured to remain silent.
There was a lack of workplace regulations.
There were no worker protection laws against radiation exposure at the time. Occupational safety laws were weak and unenforced, so companies face little oversight. The legal system initially favored corporations, making it hard for workers to hold their employers accountable.
Finally, there was delayed medical response.
Many doctors were unaware of radium poisoning symptoms, leading to misdiagnosis. Many of the women presented with differing symptoms. When the connection was eventually made, it was too late for many workers to recover. Even after health effects became undeniable, companies delayed legal action, knowing most of the radium girls would not live out the decade, but the dying women still fought for justice.

Laura: What impact would the poisoning have had on the women's everyday lives? 

Aimee: The women were so unaware of the risks of radium that they would paint their nails with it for fun, and some even coated their teeth to have radiant smiles. The women were paid well by USRC for the time, and the girls would often wear their best dresses for work as they would give off a glow when they went dancing in the evening, and would show off their glow with pride as it was an indication of their good job and pay. It was also plain to see that the contamination was being spread to the girls' homes.
Quite often, the initial indicator of illness would be severe toothache and the girl's teeth would eventually fall out. Their bones would become brittle and it became excruciatingly painful to move around. Their jawbones began to disintegrate so they would find it difficult to eat and rapidly lose weight. Then, they would often develop anemia and would become so fatigued that it would be difficult for them to go about their normal business. 
The women would visit their doctor to try and gain relief with medical treatment but they were often misdiagnosed due to lack of knowledge at the time, which USRC capitalized on. Due to their deterioration, many of the girls had to give up their lucrative jobs at the dial painting factory but also began to amass large medical bills that their families couldn't afford, causing great stress.

Laura: How did the Radium Girls ultimately win their case? 

Aimee: Amelia Magia was the first to die in 1922. She died at just 25, after working at the factory for only four years. Several deaths then resulted over the coming years which began to raise questions. The girls' physicians had begun to see similarities in the girls' symptoms which triggered investigation. The USRC completely rejected the girls' claims, insisting that radium was harmless.
One doctor persisted having gone through the girls' medical records and generated a report of their findings stating that their illnesses were most likely due to radium poisoning from dial painting, which the USRC promptly buried and then falsified their own report to the contrary.
The breakthrough finally occurred in the mid 20's, when medical professionals saw the link between radium and jaw necrosis. Some of the girls who were suffering symptoms were then tested and an autopsy conducted on a recently deceased worker, and both were found to have high levels of radiation.
Five surviving radium girls took legal action against their former employer but by the time the trial started, most were too ill to attend. As it was unlikely that the girls would survive, the case was settled out of court quickly, with each Radium Girl being awarded $10,000 in damages and $600 per year for the rest of their lives. Their court fees and medical bills were also settled by the company, but by settling they avoided being charged as guilty of any wrongdoing. However, the publicity gained was enough to raise awareness and introduce legislation to control the use of radium.

Laura: Is there any way that the poisoning could have been avoided? 

Aimee: The Radium Girls incident could easily have been avoided with basic health and safety measures that we now consider standard in the workplace.

1. Scientific Awareness and Ethical Transparency
There could have been honest communication about the known risks. By 1910, scientists already knew that radium was dangerous in high doses, and some early studies suggested long-term exposure risks. The company should have disclosed these findings instead of downplaying the dangers. Male lab workers in the U.S Radium Corporation were given protective gear, showing the company knew there was a risk and that they should have extended this protection to all workers.
There could have also been early medical monitoring. If routine checks had have been done, the first signs of poisoning could have been detected, preventing many deaths.
2. Safer workplace practices.
"Lip-pointing" techniques should have been prohibited. Instead of requiring workers to shape their brushes with their mouths, companies could have provided alternatives such as:
- Fine tip brushes that didn't need reshaping.
- Tools like glass rods to refine the paint tips.
- Training on proper handling techniques.
Also, workers should have been provided with Personal Protective Equipment such as: 
- gloves to prevent skin absorption; 
- masks to reduce inhalation of radium dust; and, 
- lead lined aprons or shields, as male workers had.
Proper ventilation and containment also could have helped to reduce the risks. Factories should have been equipped with air filtration and separate workspaces to limit exposure. Workers' clothing should have been decontaminated before leaving work to prevent radium from spreading to their homes.
3. Workplace Regulations and Accountability.
There should have been strict government oversight. If workplace safety inspections had have been conducted, regulators could have detected unsafe practices early. The government should have enforced radiation exposure limits as later adopted after the Radium Girls case.
There also could have been better whistleblower protections. Many workers were silenced when they spoke up. Stronger labor rights could have protected them from retaliation and forced an earlier investigation.
And finally, 
4. Using Safer Paints.
Even in the early 1900's, non-radioactive luminescent materials could have been explored. Instead of radium, the industry later switched to phosphorescent zinc-based paints that were far safer.

Laura: What impact did this case have on the public perception of workplace rights?

Aimee: The public's opinion of radiation certainly changed as a result of the Radium Girls landmark case. Prior to their case many people believe radium was beneficial for health, and that was no longer true. There was public outcry for limitation of its use and eventual ban on using radium in watch-dial painting altogether. It also expedited the introduction of safety regulations that improved worker protection and set a precedent for worker compensation claims.
To avoid any legal action, employers became much more safety-conscious and introduced better practices. In fact, all types of industries across the US and Europe thereafter, also began providing more workers' rights, after legislation was introduced that compensation could be sought for any worker suffering from occupational diseases.

Laura: Amy, can you tell us what lessons were learned as a result of the poisoning, and do we do anything differently now because of it? 

Aimee: The Radium Girls Case exposed serious failures in workplace safety and led to major reforms in occupational health. The key lessons learned shape modern workplace safety laws in several ways.
Firstly, there is now the recognition of occupational diseases. Governments and medical professionals began studying workplace-related illnesses more seriously. Occupational diseases like asbestos-related lung disease and radiation poisoning are now widely recognized. The development of workers' compensation laws ensured that employees harmed by workplace exposure received financial and medical support.
Secondly, there is now improved employer responsibility for worker safety employers are now required to assess workplace risks and take preventative measures. If an employer knowingly exposes workers to harmful substances without protection, they can face legal consequences.
In addition to this, the "Whistleblower Protection Act" was established to prevent companies from retaliating against workers who report unsafe conditions.
Thirdly, the use of PPE is now essential. Today, PPE such as gloves, masks, goggles, and protective clothing is mandatory in hazardous work environments. Employers must provide PPE at no cost to workers and ensure it meets safety standards.
Fourthly, there is better regulation of hazardous substances. The Radiation Protection Standards were developed, setting maximum safe exposure levels for radioactive materials. This case helped lead to the founding of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in 1971, which regulates workplace safety.
The OSHA now enforces strict radiation exposure limits and workplaces. Companies working with radioactive materials must conduct radioactive monitoring, provide protective shielding, and conduct regular health checks for employees. If an employer violates these safety standards, they can face heavy fines or shutdowns.
Finally, employees now have the right to know about workplace hazards. Laws now require safety data sheets, which list chemical hazards, handling precautions, and first aid measures. Furthermore, employers must provide proper training on hazardous materials. The Hazard Communication Standard ensures that all hazardous materials and workplaces are labeled, and workers are informed of the risks.
The Radium Girls case was tragic, but a powerful turning point in labor rights. Their fight for justice help create modern workplace protections and ensures that workers are not unknowingly exposed to harmful substances.

Laura: Thanks for joining us on this episode of "Did History Actually Teach Us Anything?".
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